It could have been worse
17.07.2018
Both historians and jurists are intrigued by the future: historians – despite their habitual claims to the contrary – wish to say something meaningful about the future by studying the...
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‘Vetoing’ the admission of a third state in international organizations
29.06.2018
On the 17th June, ‘the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia’ (hereinafter: ‘fYROM’) and Greece signed an Agreement to resolve their 27-year-long dispute over the former’s name. Most importantly, fYROM committed to change...
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Disentangling the cyber security debate
20.06.2018
In his insightful LJIL article Kubo Mačák discusses the under-developed state of international cyber security law. He assesses that the absence of cyber security law-making has created a power vacuum...
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Leveraging technology to enhance access to justice for children in Africa
14.06.2018
To keep a finger on the pulse of time, technology and innovation are central to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Context-informed and locally-adapted...
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Endlich! – Erster Haftbefehl gegen einen ranghohen Vertreter des syrischen Assad-Regimes
11.06.2018
Können mutmaßliche syrische Völkerrechtsverbrecher einfach unbehelligt nach Europa ein- und wieder ausreisen? Diesen Eindruck musste man bei der Lektüre eines Berichtes gewinnen, der vor einigen Wochen in der französischen Tageszeitung...
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Human rights and the international protection of biodiversity – A promising alliance (Part II)
08.06.2018
The first part of this post established the intrinsic connection between human rights and the protection of biodiversity, looked at human rights and the environment in international public law in...
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Human rights and the international protection of biodiversity – A promising alliance (Part I)
04.06.2018
For a long time, the legal and political endeavours to protect humans from violations of their basic rights seemed in no way connected to the preservation of biodiversity. In the...
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The first genocide of the 20th century before a domestic court
28.05.2018
Once more, Germany is confronted with compensation claims concerning wrongs committed in the past (see on this topic already the post by Andreas Buser). After unsuccessful previous cases against Germany by...
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Access to information and the fourth wave of rights
27.04.2018
The Inter-American and the European Court of Human Rights, the UN Human Rights Committee, the European Union, Germany, India, South Africa, and Brazil all share one common legal feature: They...
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Neue Initiative der polnischen Regierung in Sachen deutscher Weltkriegsreparationen
20.04.2018
Erneut fanden sich Anfang Januar 2018 Meldungen über Erwägungen der polnischen Regierung, Reparationsansprüche gegen die Bundesrepublik für Schäden des Landes während der deutschen Besatzung im 2. Weltkrieg geltend zu machen....
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The Philippines’ move away from the International Criminal Court over the war on drugs: A blow for human rights in Asia
13.04.2018
As a signatory to every human rights treaty and being at the forefront of promoting international human rights, Philippines is considered as one of the “architects” of the United Nations...
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Stretching abstract reasoning to its limits
06.04.2018
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights issued the Advisory Opinion (AO) of 15 November, 2017 (OC-23/17), on the subject matter of the environment and human rights. Its wide-ranging features already...
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Defending the defenders
26.03.2018
On 3 March 2016 Honduran indigenous activist Berta Cáceres was assassinated. She was a coordinator of the Council of Popular and Indigenous Organizations of Honduras (COPINH) and one of the...
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The Kosovo Specialist Chambers
14.03.2018
As the doors were closing on Churchillplein 1, the Hague, the former home of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), only a short walk away a new...
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Rainbow jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court?
12.03.2018
On 8 November 2017, something happened which can be seen as a milestone for gay rights: a communication was submitted to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) that...
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Schadensersatzansprüche vor nationalen Gerichten aufgrund von Völkerrechtsverstößen?
07.03.2018
Können ausländische Unternehmen und Individuen die Verletzung von Völkerrechtsnormen durch andere ausländische Unternehmen vor Gericht rügen und Schadenersatzansprüche geltend machen? Die Verfahren gegen Arab Bank Plc. Ein solcher Fall wird...
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Opt-in vs. Opt-out = opt-in-opt-out?
07.02.2018
In December 2017, the States Parties to the International Criminal Court (ICC) had the chance to realize in New York what Robert H. Jackson called for in his opening statement...
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One law to rule them all
05.02.2018
In May 2016, the EU adopted its long-awaited new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and thereby opened a new chapter in the history of European and global data protection law. Meeting the...
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Cheating Chile
19.01.2018
A rare mea culpa emanated from the leading international development institution, the World Bank, last week. The Bank’s Chief Economist, Paul Romer, told the Wall Street Journal: “I want to...
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Das Dilemma der Intra-EU Investor-Staat Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit
17.01.2018
Über den Achmea-Fall (Rechtssache C-284/16), seine Hintergründe und die mündliche Verhandlung wurde auf diesem Blog bereits an anderer Stelle berichtet. Die dem Fall zugrundeliegende rechtliche Problematik beruht auf den bilateralen...
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Nature as a bearer of rights – a legal construction in pursuit for better environmental protection?
27.12.2017
The World Climate Conference (COP 23), held in Bonn, Germany, has ended on November 17th and some of its key outcomes seem to be auspicious (e.g. the coal phase-out promoted...
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Self-defence against the PKK?
22.12.2017
The conflict between Turkey and the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) as a Kurdish insurgent movement is a four-decade-long (from the 1980s) guerrilla war in the southeast region of the country....
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Zu ihrem Glück vereint
15.12.2017
Das öffentliche Interesse an dem Besuch von EU-Kommissionspräsident Jean-Claude Junker am 22. November in Bern war groß. Im Vorfeld des – schon von langer Hand geplanten – Treffens mit dem...
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The winds in New York have not changed after the recent ICJ elections
13.12.2017
Inflamed passions, relentless rallying and 11 voting sessions hence, the International Court of Justice (ICJ/World Court/Court) was finally made complete. Contrary to previous occasions characterizing the Court’s history, ‘completeness’ this...
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Die Trump-Administration, der Kongress und das Dilemma des JCPOA
11.12.2017
Nach knapp 12 Jahren stockend verlaufender Verhandlungen, verbunden mit massivem wirtschaftlichen Druck auf Iran, konnten sich am 14.07.2015 die Außenminister der EU-3+3 – Bezeichnung für Staaten (P5+Deutschland), die sich den...
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Last but not least: Lebenslang für den “Schlächter des Balkans”
08.12.2017
Bei der Verfolgung massiver Gewaltverbrechen spielen die Verfahren gegen die Entscheidungsträger*innen eine besondere Rolle. Die bloße Verfolgung „kleiner Rädchen im Getriebe“ verspricht nicht den gleichen Effekt auf die nach Gerechtigkeit...
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Can we detect paradigmatic shifts when we see them?
06.12.2017
There certainly is no shortage of supposedly common wisdoms in academia on the futility of interdisciplinary work, not all of them as witty as MacIntyres’ observation that it “seems impossible...
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Quo Vadis PMSC?
04.12.2017
In his recent post, Mirko Sossai succinctly summarized three phases of research on Private Military and Security Companies (PMSC). He also named the challenges on the way forward, particularly the...
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Verstoß von Deutschland gegen EMRK wegen mangelnder Untersuchung von Polizeigewalt
01.12.2017
Der EGMR hat in einem für Deutschland sehr wichtigen Verfahren eine Verletzung von Art. 3 der Konvention festgestellt. Das ist bisher noch nicht häufig geschehen. Art. 3 schützt gegen unmenschliche...
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La situation en Catalogne
27.11.2017
La déclaration d’indépendance de la Catalogne constitue à n’en pas douter l’expression la plus forte de la crise institutionnelle qu’a connu la Catalogne ces dernières années. Si la question du...
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Wind of change in New York?
24.11.2017
Am Ende ging es ganz schnell. Nach einem tagelangen Machtpoker um den verbleibenden freien Platz am IGH zog Großbritannien seinen Kandidaten, den amtierenden Richter Sir Christopher Greenwood, zurück. Der Weg...
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Who may see the Acropolis? Global patterns of inequality and the right to tourism
16.11.2017
In her contribution on the newly created right to tourism, Sabrina Tremblay-Huet convincingly states, that the social and economic phenomenon of tourism has been widely disregarded by the social sciences,...
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A right to tourism – and the duty of hosting the leisure class
06.11.2017
The movement of bodies across borders attracts significant media and academic interest. This interest is often directed at specific forms of movement, such as refugees and economic migration. Another form...
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Rethinking containment through the EU-Libya Migration Deal
23.10.2017
This blogpost responds to last week's post by Stefan Salomon. In response to Nils Muiznieks, Human Rights Commissioner of the Council of Europe who asked Italy to clarify its relationships with...
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The identification of individuals
16.10.2017
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in its judgment in the case and N.T. v. Spain found that push-backs to Morocco in the border zone of the Spanish enclave...
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Brother, where art thou?
11.10.2017
The key political question in recent months has been how to reduce the number of unauthorized migrants that arrive to Europe’s shores in rickety vessels from politically unstable countries in...
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Combatting the legal side effects of privatized war
09.10.2017
This contribution continues our journal cooperation with the journal "Swiss Review of International & European Law". Over the past twenty years a lively debate on the regulation of private military...
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Returns without examinations
04.10.2017
On September 22, 2017, Greece’s highest administrative court – the Council of State – proclaimed that two Syrian asylum seekers can be deported to Turkey as a so-called safe third...
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The referendum on Catalan self-determination: long shots and legal flair
27.09.2017
The image conjured by the first subtitle of Zoran Oklopcic’s post on the referendum on Catalan self-determination, that of a zombie self-determination resurrected from its post-Kosovan resting place and back...
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The referendum on Catalan self-determination (Part II)
25.09.2017
What encouraged the Catalans to place their bets on the persuasive power of remedial self-determination were two constitutional, not international legal texts: the Supreme Court of Canada’s 1998 Reference re...
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The referendum on Catalan self-determination (Part I)
22.09.2017
Scheduled to take place on 1 October 2017, the referendum on the independence of Catalonia looks to be a turning point in the history of the Iberian peninsula; if not...
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Is a bird in the hand always worth two in the bush?
13.09.2017
This post inaugurates a new cooperation of Völkerrechtsblog with the “Leiden Journal of International Law“. Firmly established as one of the leading journals in the field, the Leiden Journal of International Law (LJIL) provides...
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Messing with the mess we are in
08.09.2017
German legal scholarship has a reputation for being quite orthodox. Amid doctrinal sophistication and positivist assumptions, however, lie hidden treasure islands of heterodoxy. One such island was the Transregional Academy...
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Status: “It’s complicated”
06.09.2017
Courts are to many African leaders what models are to soccer stars: they are arm candy, but they are not expected to develop a life of their own, or make...
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David gegen Goliath
23.08.2017
Mareike Riedel
Survival International
Wenn man über indigene Völker in den Medien liest, dann liest man in der Regel leider selten Gutes: Land Grabbing, Vertreibung oder, wie in Australien, der Kampf der Aborigines um...
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The C-Star’s Odyssey and the International Law of the Sea
21.08.2017
Valentin J. Schatz
Arron N. Honniball
In Homer’s epic poem, “The Odyssey”, the Greek hero Odysseus, having left his home Ithaca to help bring Helena back from Troy, faced manifold hardships on his return across the...
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On book reviews: Why, when and how to write them
09.08.2017
Book reviews are perhaps a difficult format for academic writing. After all, what we all like to do best is talk about ourselves and our own ideas and why we...
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Zwischen Skylla und Charybdis
04.08.2017
Die Straßen rund um das Plateau Kirchberg im Osten Luxemburgs, quasi der Herzkammer der europäischen Rechtswissenschaft, sind schon seit mehreren Jahren eine Dauerbaustelle. Am Montag, den 19. Juni 2017, war...
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On ‘cyber trafficking’ and the protection of its victims
26.07.2017
‘Cyber trafficking’ has become a buzzword in scientific and policy discussions related to human trafficking. However, as has been noted elsewhere, the term is far from being used in a...
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The unsolved case of Giulio Regeni
03.07.2017
Martina Buscemi
Federica Violi
More than one year after the dead body of the Italian Ph.D. student Giulio Regeni was found in Cairo, his ghastly demise remains unresolved. The circumstances of his death cast...
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‘Cyber’ trafficking? An interpretation of the Palermo Protocol in the digital era
28.06.2017
The digital era has changed the traditional realm and modus operandi of organised crime, such as human trafficking. With the increasing access to and usage of the internet, major criminal...
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Preemptive self-defense? Not yet!
12.06.2017
Nordkorea hat in diesem Jahr neun Raketentests durchgeführt, zuletzt drei innerhalb von nur drei Wochen, begleitet von den üblichen Drohungen Richtung Südkorea und den USA. Die letzte Rakete ist am...
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The Michigan Guidelines on Refugee Freedom of Movement, or: how explosive existing law can be
31.05.2017
The Michigan Guidelines are a document in which legal scholars summarize the existing international laws of refugee protection on one particular aspect. They are “just” an expert opinion - yet...
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Die Michigan Guidelines on Refugee Freedom of Movement, oder: so brisant ist das geltende Recht
29.05.2017
Die Michigan Guidelines sind ein Dokument, in welchem WissenschaftlerInnen das bestehende Flüchtlingsrechts zu einem bestimmten Aspekt zusammenfassen. Sie sind „nur“ eine Expertenmeinung – und dabei doch nicht wenig: Sie werden...
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Kulturgüter – Neue Narrative für den Umgang mit dem postkolonialen Erbe
24.05.2017
Der Kulturgüterschutz ist wie kaum ein anderes Feld mit Fragen der Identität sowie Emotionen verknüpft. In ihrem konzisen Überblick zu den Herausforderungen des völkerrechtlichen Kulturgüterschutzes hat Adrianna A. Michel diesen...
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The International Arbitration Bill and the future of arbitrations in South Africa
17.05.2017
“The vast bulk of Africa-related international arbitration cases are resolved in Europe.” Most treaties concluded by the Republic of South Africa (‘RSA’) do not require the exhaustion of domestic remedies...
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The role of the ICC and of non-State actors concerning the protection of cultural heritage
10.05.2017
Alessandro Chechi
Vanessa Vuille
International cultural heritage law is a vast and complex field of research which involves many actors, as the previous contribution by Adrianna Michel shows. In response, we would like to...
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Kulturgüterschutz – eine Verpflichtung gegenüber der uns nachfolgenden Generation
08.05.2017
Die heutigen Formen der Bedrohung von Kulturgütern sind vielschichtig. Neben der Zerstörung in bewaffneten Konflikten oder aus religiösem Wahn spielen auch der Raub und die Verschleppung in und nach kriegerischen...
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Konstitutionelles Sultanat versus US-amerikanisches Präsidialsystem
01.05.2017
Die Türkei hat am 16. April 2017 ein Verfassungsreferendum durchgeführt. Eine knappe (noch umstrittene) Mehrheit von 51,4 % der Wähler hat sich für die Einführung eines Präsidialsystems ausgesprochen. Damit steht der...
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Grenzenloses Recht. Dem Völkerrechtshistoriker Jörg Fisch zum 70. Geburtstag
28.04.2017
Wie universal kann ein eurozentrisch geprägtes Völkerrecht sein? Und wie lässt sich vermeiden, dass faktische Ungleichheit eine internationale Rechtsordnung sprengt, die seit der Dekolonisierung als Recht zwischen Gleichen ausgestaltet ist?...
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Iran’s ballistic missile tests
14.04.2017
Little over a week after the inauguration of Donald Trump, the new President of the United State (US), the US officials increased international tensions over Iran’s ballistic missile test on...
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Die Büchse der Pandora
13.04.2017
Eine Replik auf den Beitrag von Alexander Groß. In der Nacht vom 6. auf den 7. April hat die US-Navy 59 Tomahawk Marschflugkörper auf den Stützpunkt der syrischen Luftwaffe Shayrat...
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Am Ende des Rechts angelangt – schon wieder
10.04.2017
Der mutmaßliche Giftgas-Angriff des Assad-Regimes in Syrien lässt die Vereinigten Staaten zu militärischen Mitteln im nach wie vor andauernden Syrienkonflikt greifen. Der russische Staatspräsident Wladimir Putin hält auch prompt das...
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Does transnational environmental crime and transnational fisheries crime exist in international law?
03.04.2017
In her post, Professor Elliott argues for a ‘levels-of-analysis’ approach to understanding transnational environmental crime. I made a similar argument in a Chapter entitled ‘Fisheries Crime’ in Elliott and Schaedla’s recent...
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The use of depleted uranium munition by the US military in Syria
31.03.2017
Elisabeth Hoffberger-Pippan
When the US Pentagon confirmed the use and deployment of depleted uranium munition in Syria, an armed conflict having by far exceeded the level of a civil war, on the...
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CJEU Cases C-157/15 Achbita and C-188/15 Bougnaoui
24.03.2017
On 14 March 2017 the CJEU upheld the banning of the visible display of any political, philosophical or religious sign in the workplace. As a future consequence, European companies may...
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The battle against transnational fisheries crime
03.03.2017
The raison d’être of the concept of transnational ‘fisheries crime’ (TFC) (INTERPOL 2013) or ‘marine resource crime’ (UNODC 2011) can be traced to endemic illicit activities in the fisheries sector...
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Die Umsetzung der schweizerischen Volksinitiative „gegen Masseneinwanderung“
17.02.2017
Wie es Ignacio de la Rasilla del Moral treffend zusammenfasst, hatten die im Vereinigten Königreich ansässigen Völkerrechtler(innen) nach der Brexit-Abstimmung vom 23. Juni 2016 mindestens zwei Gründe zur Erleichterung: erstens...
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Transnational environmental crime: a challenging problem but not yet a legal concept
15.02.2017
A response to Lorraine Elliott Transnational environmental crime is both a challenging reality and a legal concept in the making. From an international law point of view, this concept is...
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Collectively enforcing the results of democratic elections in Africa
10.02.2017
“When […] ECOWAS is united and the African Union is united, then it is possible for the Security Council to decide; it is possible for action to be taken, and...
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Collectively enforcing the results of democratic elections in Africa
10.02.2017
This post continues the earlier part I. As the 19 January deadline approached, without Jammeh showing any inclination to resign, the crisis deepened. Troops from Senegal, Nigeria and Ghana –...
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Die Schweiz will den Bruch mit der EU nicht riskieren
08.02.2017
In Zeiten des „Brexit“ und zahlreicher anderer Turbulenzen in Europa geht fast vergessen, dass auch für die Schweiz das Verhältnis zur Europäischen Union seit nunmehr drei Jahren in der Schwebe...
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‘Green Crime’
06.02.2017
Millions of dollars worth of smuggled elephant ivory intercepted by customs officers each year, shipping containers filled with hundreds of tonnes of illegally traded pangolin scales and kiln-dried geckoes, forests...
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Putschists behind bars?
27.01.2017
The Point of Departure Regionalism continues to increasingly develop in various fields of law. Abdoulaye Soma, who acknowledges the birth of an African international criminal law, analyses one of its...
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Rethinking the International Criminal Justice Project in the Global South
20.01.2017
Concerns about the International Criminal Court’s (ICC) continuing relevance in Africa following exit announcements by Burundi, South Africa, and Gambia are widespread. But the picture across the continent is more complex. While...
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Die UNO als Kopie antiker Vorbilder?
18.01.2017
Kommentar zum Beitrag von Jorrik Fulda In seinem aufschlussreichen Beitrag argumentiert Jorrik Fulda, dass die Vereinten Nationen als System kollektiver Sicherheit dem antiken Modell der Koine Eirene (κοινὴ εἰρήνη) oder...
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Globale Koine Eirene?
16.01.2017
Die UN und das Prinzip der kollektiven Sicherheit sind aus der heutigen Weltpolitik nicht mehr wegzudenken. Doch was kaum jemand weiß: ähnliche multilaterale Friedensverträge gab es schon in der griechischen...
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German genocide in Namibia before U.S. Courts
11.01.2017
Since October 2016, the German Historical Museum has been dealing with the past and presence of German colonialism in a special exhibition (see here) – for the first time ever....
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Retter der Menschenrechte weltweit?
09.01.2017
Ob Folter durch Sicherheitskräfte, Gefängnisstrafen ohne faires Gerichtsurteil oder Ausbeutung durch korrupte Beamte: Menschenrechte werden weltweit täglich verletzt, wie auch für das Jahr 2016 dem Jahresbericht von Human Rights Watch...
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Vereint gegen den Terror?
02.01.2017
Der 13. November 2015 begann in Paris wie ein ganz normaler Tag und endete in Blut und Schrecken: sechs Anschläge erschüttern die französische Hauptstadt, 130 Menschen verloren ihr Leben, über...
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Victor’s justice, contested
21.12.2016
In his post, Gabriel Lentner argues that the ICC legitimizes and reproduces “victor’s justice” through its acceptance of Article 13(b) referrals from the Security Council. He takes issue with the...
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Victor’s justice in disguise?
19.12.2016
The UN Security Council has the power to refer situations to the International Criminal Court (ICC) against the will of the territorial state, even if that state is not a...
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Open Access on the shores of international legal scholarship
16.12.2016
Michael Riegner
Raffaela Kunz
The digital revolution is hitting the shores of academic publishing. Online resources increasingly gain ground, and open access has become the call of the day – and a hotly debated...
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Towards a more radical deterritorialisation of language
28.11.2016
A reply to Ekaterina Yahyahoui It is hard to imagine an ‘intensive usage’ of language being accommodated within international law. How would international treaty-making incorporate use of syntax ‘in order...
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Expression over content
23.11.2016
In this short piece I will argue that international law, in order to gain access to its revolutionary potential, needs to create a new linguistic opening. This linguistic opening needs...
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This is about globalization, and there is work to do for international legal scholarship
11.11.2016
The last two days have been filled with consternation, anger, and the attempt to situate what the election of Donald Trump means. What it means in terms of causes, and in terms of...
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Von der komplizierten Freiheit, die eigene Muttersprache zu sprechen
11.10.2016
Sprachenrechte gehören, wie der Europäische Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR) in entsprechenden Urteilen regelmäßig betont, als solche nicht zu den von der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention (EMRK) geregelten Rechten und Freiheiten. Dass es...
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The ICC’s Al Mahdi verdict on the destruction of cultural heritage: two steps forward, one step back?
03.10.2016
On 27 October 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) convicted Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi of war crimes related to the destruction of protected cultural heritage in Mali under article...
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Is there a positive obligation on Russia to legalise same-sex unions under the European Convention on Human Rights?
21.09.2016
On 2 May 2016, the European Court of Human Rights communicated the case of Irina Borisovna Fedotova and Irina Vladimironova Shipitko v. Russia (no. 40792/10). The complaints lodged by three...
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Innovations in pharmaceutical industry
15.09.2016
Intellectual Property Laws across the world is intended to provide incentives to creators, authors, innovators and businesses by granting them monopoly rights usually for a limited period. Those rights would...
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Responsibility-sharing for refugees (2)
09.09.2016
I have argued in the previous post, how states’ regulation of borders and the global question of responsibility sharing relate: Not only does the securization of borders in one place...
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Responsibility-sharing for refugees (1)
07.09.2016
When the German Minister of the Interior a few weeks ago announced that “the refugee crisis has not been resolved, but its solution is on a very good way”, he...
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Die EU-Türkei-Beziehungen und die Flüchtlingsvereinbarung
05.09.2016
Nach der Krise ist vor der Krise. Auf die Finanzkrise folgte die Flüchtlingskrise und stellte die Europäische Union erneut vor die Zerreißprobe. Aufgrund der intern nicht überwindbaren Meinungsverschiedenheiten hat die...
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The role of human rights in the realm of arms transfers
27.07.2016
Elif Askin picked a current, important, and yet rarely discussed issue for her insightful post and offered a compelling perspective on human rights law and arms transfers. By transferring arms...
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Blackmarketing “Bundeswehr” weapons in Northern Iraq
25.07.2016
In September 2014, the German army started shipping weapons from its own stocks to the security forces of the Kurdish autonomous region in Northern Iraq (Peshmerga) to support the fight...
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Understanding the impact of different concepts of surrogate mother for the regulation of international surrogacy arrangements
22.07.2016
In her post to this blog, Sharon Bassan advances the argument for a duty on consumers’ states to regulate cross-border surrogacy transactions. The factual background is as follows: intended parents...
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Cross-border surrogacy transactions (CBST):
20.07.2016
Whether surrogacy is ethical or not is subject to lively debate. But so far, it is the prerogative of each sovereign state to decide whether to allow or forbid in...
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- Symposium
- Article
- Alternative Dispute Resolution
From curse to opportunity: Mediation of natural resource conflicts
13.07.2016
Since 1946, at least 40 % of intrastate conflicts have been linked to natural resources. Furthermore, conflicts associated with natural resources are more likely to relapse into violence within the...
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